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Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?

1935/05/15 by A. Einstein, Albert Einstein, B. Podolsky +2 · 2 voices · 16,771 citations
Computer Science · Mathematics · Physics and Astronomy · #Advanced Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics #Basis (linear algebra) #Certainty #Classical mechanics #Computer science #Element (criminal law) #Function (biology) #Geometry #Mathematics #Physical system #Physics #Quantum #Quantum Information and Cryptography #Quantum Mechanics and Applications #Quantum mechanics #Theoretical physics #Wave function

paper · pdf · doi:10.1103/physrev.47.777

published in Physical Review 47(10), 777-780 (American Institute of Physics)

openalex publication_date 1935/05/15 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/06

Abstract

In a complete theory there is an element corresponding to each element of reality. A sufficient condition for the reality of a physical quantity is the possibility of predicting it with certainty, without disturbing the system. In quantum mechanics in the case of two physical quantities described by non-commuting operators, the knowledge of one precludes the knowledge of the other. Then either (1) the description of reality given by the wave function in quantum mechanics is not complete or (2) these two quantities cannot have simultaneous reality. Consideration of the problem of making predictions concerning a system on the basis of measurements made on another system that had previously interacted with it leads to the result that if (1) is false then (2) is also false. One is thus led to conclude that the description of reality as given by a wave function is not complete.

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