Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

1991/01/01 by Hazel Rose Markus, Hazel R. Markus, Shinobu Kitayama · 20,922 citations
Psychology · Social Sciences · #Cognition #Cognitive psychology #Cultural Differences and Values #Emotions and Moral Behavior #International Student and Expatriate Challenges #Perception #Psychology #Social psychology

paper · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224

published in Psychological Review 98(2), 224-253 (American Psychological Association)

openalex publication_date 1991/04/01 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/06

Abstract

People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion,

Citations

• A General Approach to Confirmatory Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis
• Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness.
• The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts.

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• Cognitive Style as Environmentally Sensitive Individual Differences in Cognition
• Self-enhancement [wikipedia]
• Patients' preferences for involvement in treatment decision making in Japan. [europepmc]
• Culture-gene coevolution of individualism-collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. [europepmc]
• Culture and cooperation. [europepmc]
• Dimensions of acculturation: associations with health risk behaviors among college students from immigrant families. [europepmc]
• Gender Differences in Personality across the Ten Aspects of the Big Five. [europepmc]
• Why are Chinese mothers more controlling than American mothers? "My child is my report card". [europepmc]
• EEG correlates of self-referential processing. [europepmc]
• Cortical midline structures and autobiographical-self processes: an activation-likelihood estimation meta-analysis. [europepmc]
• Familism and psychological health: the intervening role of closeness and social support. [europepmc]
• The early development of executive function and its relation to social interaction: a brief review. [europepmc]
• Cross-cultural differences in somatic awareness and interoceptive accuracy: a review of the literature and directions for future research. [europepmc]
• Expression of anger and ill health in two cultures: an examination of inflammation and cardiovascular risk. [europepmc]
• Cultural stereotypes as gatekeepers: increasing girls' interest in computer science and engineering by diversifying stereotypes. [europepmc]
• Individual Differences in Cognitive Control Circuit Anatomy Link Sensation Seeking, Impulsivity, and Substance Use. [europepmc]
• So It Is, So It Shall Be: Group Regularities License Children's Prescriptive Judgments. [europepmc]
• Facets of the Fundamental Content Dimensions: Agency with Competence and Assertiveness-Communion with Warmth and Morality. [europepmc]
• The influence of peer behavior as a function of social and cultural closeness: A meta-analysis of normative influence on adolescent smoking initiation and continuation. [europepmc]
• Effects of Discovery, Iteration, and Collaboration in Laboratory Courses on Undergraduates' Research Career Intentions Fully Mediated by Student Ownership. [europepmc]
• Lifestyle choices and mental health: a longitudinal survey with German and Chinese students. [europepmc]
• Social support in the general population: standardization of the Oslo social support scale (OSSS-3). [europepmc]
• Gender and Psychological Well-Being. [europepmc]
• Cultural orientation, power, belief in conspiracy theories, and intentions to reduce the spread of COVID-19. [europepmc]
• Examining moderators of the relationship between social support and self-reported PTSD symptoms: A meta-analysis. [europepmc]
• The empirical evidence underpinning the concept and practice of person-centred care for serious illness: a systematic review. [europepmc]
• Face masks reduce emotion-recognition accuracy and perceived closeness. [europepmc]

Related

• Cultures and Selves
• Cultural Psychology: Beyond East and West
• People in more individualist cultures are more motivated to make others feel better
• Personality: The Universal and the Culturally Specific
• On “Feeling Right” in Cultural Contexts