Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach.

1988/05/01 by James C. Anderson, David W. Gerbing · 40,027 citations
Computer Science · Decision Sciences · Engineering · Mathematics · Medicine · Psychology · #Advanced Statistical Modeling Techniques #Calculus (dental) #Computer science #Econometrics #Engineering #Machine learning #Management science #Mathematics #Medicine #Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports #Orthodontics #Psychology #Psychometric Methodologies and Testing #Structural equation modeling

paper · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411

published in Psychological Bulletin 103(3), 411-423 (American Psychological Association)

openalex publication_date 1988/05/01 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/06

Abstract

In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.

Citations

• A General Structural Equation Model with Dichotomous, Ordered Categorical, and Continuous Latent Variable Indicators
• Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.
• The Effect of Sampling Error on Convergence, Improper Solutions, and Goodness-of-Fit Indices for Maximum Likelihood Confirmatory Factor Analysis
• On the Multivariate Asymptotic Distribution of Sequential Chi-Square Statistics
• Two Structural Equation Models: LISREL and PLS Applied to Consumer Exit-Voice Theory

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• Self-critical perfectionism and daily affect: Dispositional and situational influences on stress and coping.
• The Revised Almost Perfect Scale
• Assessing experiential learning styles: A methodological reconstruction and validation of the Kolb Learning Style Inventory
• Leader creativity expectations motivate employee creativity: a moderated mediation examination
• How do flexible work arrangements alleviate work-family-conflict? The roles of flexibility i-deals and family-supportive cultures
• Impact of HRM practices on innovative behaviour: mediating role of talent development climate in Indian firms
• Automated writing evaluation (AWE) feedback: a systematic investigation of college students’ acceptance
• Tightwads and Spendthrifts
• Association Between Poor Sleep, Fatigue, and Safety Outcomes in Emergency Medical Services Providers
• Communal and exchange relationship perceptions as separate constructs and their role in motivations to donate
• Corporate branding, emotional attachment and brand loyalty: the case of luxury fashion branding
• Why customers stay: measuring the underlying dimensions of services switching costs and managing their differential strategic outcomes
• Factors influencing satisfaction and loyalty in online shopping: an integrated model
• Who Wants To Be a Nurse? Understanding Emirati Female Students’ Knowledge and Attitudes About Nursing as a Career
• The impact of radio frequency identification technology utilization on supply chain transparency and agility dimensions of the responsiveness view
• Determinants of Regular and Occasional Consumers' Intentions to Buy Organic Food
• The consequences of antisocial behavior in older male siblings for younger brothers and sisters.
• Management innovation: the influence of institutional pressures and the impact on competitive advantage
• The importance of employee participation and perceptions of changes in procedures in a teamworking intervention
• Addressing excessive social media use: effects of perceived intrusiveness and psychological reactance on compliance with Douyin healthy use reminders
• Can artificial intelligence-supported virtual tourist experiences improve tourist wellbeing?
• Does intraorganizational competition prompt or hinder performance? The risks for proactive employees who hide knowledge
• Online customer experience and online customer engagement with e-commerce: Comparing online and omnichannel consumer journeys
• The effects of price consciousness and sale proneness on purchase intention towards expiration date-based priced perishable foods
• The double-edge sword effect of interorganizational trust on involvement in interorganizational networks: The mediator role of affective commitment
• Understanding hospital employee job stress and turnover intentions in a practical setting
• Women’s glass ceiling beliefs predict work engagement and burnout
• The dual impact of job variety on employee happiness and stress: the mediating role of employee engagement and burnout
• The Effects of Physician Empathy on Patient Satisfaction and Compliance
• Application of Structural Equation Modeling to Health Outcomes Research
• Assessing the impact of MSMEs entrepreneurial competency on transformational entrepreneurship in a developing economy
• A Model of Customer Satisfaction with Service Encounters Involving Failure and Recovery
• A Multimethod SEM Framework for Analyzing Models with Latent Variables
• Why Are Proactive People More Satisfied With Their Job, Career, and Life? An Examination of the Role of Work Engagement
• Exploring the link between customer experience–loyalty–consumer spend
• Accuracy and Defense Motives: Exploring Types of Information Insufficiency in the Risk Information Seeking and Processing (RISP) Model
• Caregiving process and caregiver burden: conceptual models to guide research and practice. [europepmc]
• Factors influencing consumer dietary health preventative behaviours. [europepmc]
• Some psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Modified Dental Anxiety Scale with cross validation. [europepmc]
• Community violence and youth: affect, behavior, substance use, and academics. [europepmc]
• Life Satisfaction, Positive Youth Development, and Problem Behaviour Among Chinese Adolescents in Hong Kong. [europepmc]
• The impact of minority stress on mental health and substance use among sexual minority women. [europepmc]
• Understanding determinants of consumer mobile health usage intentions, assimilation, and channel preferences. [europepmc]
• The impact of psychological capital on job burnout of Chinese nurses: the mediator role of organizational commitment. [europepmc]
• School victimization and substance use among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescents. [europepmc]
• Advancing Models and Theories for Digital Behavior Change Interventions. [europepmc]
• Parenting Stress, Mental Health, Dyadic Adjustment: A Structural Equation Model. [europepmc]
• Loneliness, Resilience, Mental Health, and Quality of Life in Old Age: A Structural Equation Model. [europepmc]
• A Hierarchical Model of Inhibitory Control. [europepmc]
• Resilience as a Mediator of Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Stress: A Cross-Country Study. [europepmc]
• The Relationship Between Self-Control and Self-Efficacy Among Patients With Substance Use Disorders: Resilience and Self-Esteem as Mediators. [europepmc]
• A Primer to (Cross-Cultural) Multi-Group Invariance Testing Possibilities in R. [europepmc]
• Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: a structural equation model. [europepmc]
• Psychometric Properties of a Spanish Version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in General Population of Lima, Peru. [europepmc]
• Psychometric property study of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) in Chinese healthcare workers during the outbreak of corona virus disease 2019. [europepmc]
• The Role of Illness Perceptions, Coping, and Self-Efficacy on Adherence to Precautionary Measures for COVID-19. [europepmc]
• Technology Acceptance, Technological Self-Efficacy, and Attitude Toward Technology-Based Self-Directed Learning: Learning Motivation as a Mediator. [europepmc]
• Fear of COVID-19, Mindfulness, Humor, and Hopelessness: A Multiple Mediation Analysis. [europepmc]
• Capability, opportunity, and motivation: an across contexts empirical examination of the COM-B model. [europepmc]
• The addiction behavior of short-form video app TikTok: The information quality and system quality perspective. [europepmc]
• The impact of fear and anxiety of Covid-19 on life satisfaction: Psychological distress and sleep disturbance as mediators. [europepmc]

Related

• A Brief Guide to Structural Equation Modeling
• Assumptions and Comparative Strengths of the Two-Step Approach
• An Introduction to Structural Equation Modeling
• Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error
• Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics