2026/03/25 by Jiyung Hwang, Erica S. Lembke
Psychology · Social Sciences · #Education, Achievement, and Giftedness #School Choice and Performance #Early Childhood Education and Development
paper · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2026.102908
Early math achievement predicts long-term academic success, yet students with math difficulties and externalizing behavioral challenges face elevated risk for persistent underachievement. This study examined how instructional contexts (whole-class, small-group, and individual work under teacher direction) and math instructional time relate to first-grade math achievement, and whether these relations differ by students' math and externalizing behavior risk profiles. Using multilevel modeling with data from over 15,000 students in the nationally representative ECLS-K: 2011, greater instructional time and teacher-directed formats were positively associated with achievement overall. However, these associations varied by risk status. Individual work under teacher direction was especially beneficial for students with math risk, whereas students with externalizing behavior risk showed weaker gains from small-group instruction and increased instructional time. Students with co-occurring math and behavioral risk demonstrated stronger gains with increased instructional time. These findings emphasize the importance of aligning instructional organization with students' academic and behavioral needs. Educational relevance and implications statement This study shows that the amount of math instruction and the way instruction is organized in first grade are related to students' math achievement, but these relationships differ depending on students' academic and behavioral needs. Individual work with teacher guidance was especially helpful for students struggling in math, while students with behavioral challenges benefited less from additional instructional time or small-group formats unless adequate structure and support were present. Notably, students with both math and behavioral difficulties showed stronger gains when more instructional time was provided, suggesting that extended learning opportunities may be particularly important for students with multiple risks. These findings highlight the importance of aligning instructional time and grouping decisions with students' learning and behavioral profiles rather than relying on uniform instructional approaches.