Exaptation—a Missing Term in the Science of Form

1982/01/01 by Stephen Jay Gould, Elisabeth S. Vrba · 5,136 citations
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology · Earth and Planetary Sciences · Environmental Science · Psychology · #Adaptation (eye) #Artificial intelligence #Biology #Cognitive science #Computer science #Confusion #Epistemology #Evolution and Genetic Dynamics #Evolution and Paleontology Studies #Evolutionary biology #Exaptation #Lexicon #Natural (archaeology) #Natural selection #Paleontology #Philosophy #Physiological and biochemical adaptations #Process (computing) #Psychology #Selection (genetic algorithm) #Term (time)

paper · doi:10.1017/s0094837300004310

published in Paleobiology 8(1), 4-15 (Cambridge University Press)

openalex publication_date 1982/01/01 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/05

Abstract

Adaptation has been defined and recognized by two different criteria: historical genesis (features built by natural selection for their present role) and current utility (features now enhancing fitness no matter how they arose). Biologists have often failed to recognize the potential confusion between these different definitions because we have tended to view natural selection as so dominant among evolutionary mechanisms that historical process and current product become one. Yet if many features of organisms are non-adapted, but available for useful cooptation in descendants, then an important concept has no name in our lexicon (and unnamed ideas generally remain unconsidered): features that now enhance fitness but were not built by natural selection for their current role. We propose that such features be called exaptations and that adaptation be restricted, as Darwin suggested, to features built by selection for their current role. We present several examples of exaptation, indicating where a failure to conceptualize such an idea limited the range of hypotheses previously available. We explore several consequences of exaptation and propose a terminological solution to the problem of preadaptation.

Citations

• The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection: A Hierarchical Expansion

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