1964/03/09 by Abraham Klein, Benjamin W. Lee · 118 citations
Physics and Astronomy · Mathematics · #Quantum Chromodynamics and Particle Interactions #Black Holes and Theoretical Physics #Particle physics theoretical and experimental studies #Physics #Zero (linguistics) #Symmetry (geometry) #Spontaneous symmetry breaking #Symmetry breaking #Quantum electrodynamics #Quantum mechanics #Mathematics
paper · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.12.266
published in Physical Review Letters 12(10), 266-268 (American Physical Society)
openalex publication_date 1964/03/09 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/06/26
The implication of massless bosons from a proof by Goldstone, Salam, and Weinberg is shown to have a nonrelativistic analog that yields a massless boson excitation independent of model used. The operators and the invariance property relevant to the theory of superconductivity are used explicitly. It is concluded that there exists no general proof, independent of model and method of calculation, that establishes the existence of zero-mass particles in field theories with spontaneous breakdown of symmetry, but there are neventheless classes of field theories wherein-zero-mass panticles occur in consequence of the broken symmetry. (R.E.U.)