2009/07/24 by Rustam Al‐Shahi Salman, Daniel Labovitz, Christian Stapf · 1 citation
Medicine · #Intracerebral and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Research #Acute Ischemic Stroke Management #Neurosurgical Procedures and Complications #Medicine
paper · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2586
openalex publication_date 2009/07/24 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/07/22
Spontaneous (non-traumatic) intracerebral haemorrhage accounts for at least 10% of all strokes in the United Kingdom,1 but the incidence is higher in some ethnic groups.w1 Intracerebral haemorrhage may present with a sudden focal neurological deficit or a reduced level of consciousness, after which it kills about half of those affected within one month and leaves most survivors disabled.2 Although early case fatality after spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage has not changed over the past two decades,1 2 brain imaging has illuminated the pathophysiology of intracerebral haemorrhage and its various causes,3 w2 such that the term primary intracerebral haemorrhage now seems antiquated. Improving prevention of intracerebral haemorrhage in primary care and its outcome in secondary care is especially important in view of trends towards a rising incidence of intracerebral haemorrhage in an ageing population.1 No clinical scoring system has been shown to reliably differentiate intracerebral haemorrhage from ischaemic stroke.w3 Timely brain imaging is the key to recognising intracerebral haemorrhage. Computed tomography detects symptomatic intracerebral haemorrhage within minutes of symptom onset and up to one week thereafter; magnetic resonance imaging with gradient-recalled echo sequences reliably differentiates infarction from haemorrhage more than one week after onset of stroke.4 Diagnostic imaging distinguishes intracerebral haemorrhage from other types of intracranial haemorrhage (fig 1⇓), although intracerebral haemorrhage may extend into other intracranial compartments. This distinction is important, because the causes, prognosis, and treatment vary according to the location of intracranial haemorrhage.5 Fig 1 Axial illustration of the brain showing the subtypes of intracranial haemorrhage The major risk factors for spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage are systemic arterial hypertension, excess alcohol consumption, male sex, increasing age, and smoking.6 w4 w5 These risk factors may lead to secondary vascular changes, such as small vessel disease and arterial aneurysms, which may eventually …