2008/03/27 by Catherine Niewoehner, Anna E. Schorer · 1 citation
Medicine · Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology · #Male Breast Health Studies #Cancer and Skin Lesions #BRCA gene mutations in cancer
paper · doi:10.1136/bmj.39511.493391.be
openalex publication_date 2008/03/27 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/04
#### Summary points Breast disorders in males can be distressing for both patients and examining doctors. Patients often feel embarrassed and anxious. Although cancers are diagnosed in only about 1% of cases of male breast enlargement, practitioners may feel uncertain about how to differentiate gynaecomastia (benign breast enlargement) from malignancy and how to manage these disorders. This review covers the causes, evaluation, and treatment of gynaecomastia and the risk factors for and evaluation and treatment of breast cancer in males. #### Sources and selection criteria We searched Medline for English language papers with the key words “gynaecomastia”, “gynecomastia”, and “male breast cancer”; the Cochrane database for clinical trials; our personal archives of references; and websites with those terms. We also referred to our institutional experience with gynaecomastia and male breast cancer. Gynaecomastia is the benign enlargement of male breast tissue (>2 cm palpable, firm, subareolar gland and ductal tissue) resulting from a relative decrease in androgen effect or increase in oestrogen effect. Breast enlargement due to adipose tissue is called pseudogynaecomastia. Male breast tissue contains receptors for androgen, oestrogen, and progesterone. Oestrogen stimulates duct development and progesterone stimulates alveolar development in the presence of the …