2016/06/15 by Stephanie Joy Mawson · 5 citations
Social Sciences · Arts and Humanities · #Asian American and Pacific Histories #Maritime and Coastal Archaeology
paper · pdf · doi:10.1093/pastj/gtw008
openalex publication_date 2016/06/15 · openalex created_date 2016/06/24 · openalex updated_date 2026/07/29
In 1565 a conquering party led by Miguel López de Legazpi sailed across the Pacific to establish a permanent Spanish settlement in the Philippines. 1 Ever afterwards, the history of the archipelago was defined by its orientation towards the Pacific. More than thirteen thousand kilometres of ocean separated the islands from the nearest outpost of the Spanish empire, the viceroyalty of New Spain (modern-day Mexico). Yet the Pacific crossing was enduring. Galleons plied Pacific waters between Manila and Acapulco for two hundred and fifty years, transporting cargoes of Chinese silks to New Spain and bringing back to Manila boatloads of soldiers, missionaries, silver and much needed supplies. 2 Spanish territorial control eventually settled across most of the Visayas, Luzon and parts of Micronesia, with brief Spanish settlements in the seventeenth century in the Moluccas, Mindanao, Taiwan and the Celebes (see Map). 3 Yet, within a historiography that lauds the transpacific galleon trade and charts the exploitation of indigenous Filipinos in the lead-up to the revolutionary nineteenth century, very little has been written about the ordinary soldiers who acted as the agents of empire in this arena. Soldiers were nonetheless integral to the spread of Spanish control in the Pacific. They manned the galleons that patrolled the archipelago and transported silver and Chinese silks between Acapulco and Manila. They defended the islands against attacks by Dutch and Moro raiders, and they were essential for furthering the evangelization and colonization of indigenous peoples. 4 Numerically, soldiers outnumbered other Spanish migrants to the Philippines by seven to one, with approximately 15,600 soldiers making the Pacific crossing in the seventeenth century alone. 5 Their presence within the archipelago has left a lasting impact on the Philippines and helps to account for the high levels of cultural and racial mingling between Spaniards and indigenous populations. 6 Despite this, soldiers appear only as murky figures within the historiography of the early colonial Philippines. 7 Where soldiers do appear within the historiography of the Philippines, they are presented simultaneously as pawns of their military leaders and as complicit and active participants of conquest. Historians of the Philippines have often assumed that soldiers’ interests were intertwined with those of their king and their military commanders, drawing on the famed image of the Spanish conquistadores who conquered the territories of New Spain and Peru and were richly rewarded with land and treasure for their efforts. The influential historian John Leddy Phelan reinforced the notion of a compliant and loyal soldiery very early on in the historiography of the colonial Philippines by asserting that ‘Spaniards of all classes … were inspired by an almost limitless faith in their nation’s power and prestige’. 8 Robert Reed later wrote that the colonization of the Philippines was ‘a unified effort of soldiers, missionaries, bureaucrats and merchants in which all participants could reap their just material or spiritual rewards’. 9 Renato Constantino, one of the great nationalist Filipino historians, concluded that all soldiers were motivated by the pursuit of ‘their private goals of enrichment the the of The of the of Spanish and of the who the of the have have the soldiers of the Spanish empire with the of the a very In the of the Philippines, de that the Spanish were indigenous Filipinos of the of the soldiers in who their and they about their and their They their and to the indigenous and about for making a thousand the that only with are they In de the soldiers as of the Spanish that most of the were and with In that the soldiers were often than the of and of de the soldiers as a to the of the king that the and by the soldiers of the of the Philippines could have the of soldiers of by the king that that of … in a than of the of as the of the the presented to an on the of soldiers in early empire the of military with an in the of within the of the military soldiers have been left of early and has that their from early historiography in from a that soldiers, other or and and very little could about historiography has to on the and of the military who of military and within the of history for soldiers who in has been a of with soldiers who in the of of the of soldiers within early in to the history of and the as early of the and a of the history of empire has been written as a with and the to the of early are written the history of empire as active participants and active of Soldiers have of this within colonial they have been as conquistadores of indigenous of one historian has ‘a of the and an and conquered and Yet an on soldiers who across a of colonial Miguel the of the military with that early soldiers were agents and of Their and to an and Soldiers could the of pawns within a of military their of and were by to the they than agents of empire, soldiers in colonial were to of and and or were as were and the of colonial across a of have to the of the by the of and and indigenous peoples. Soldiers acted as and and and with indigenous and populations. In the Philippines, and the in soldiers were often the only of empire, and their to of and that could with the of indigenous and soldiers’ with could in of or the between agents and of empire soldiers could as to the as they were essential to soldiers have been left of the historiography of as agents of empire they are nonetheless an to empire was and a history of Spanish soldiers across Pacific The with an of the of Spanish soldiers in the for the Philippines in New from the image of soldiers of Spanish the of soldiers across the Pacific of and of were in and were to than The of the most ordinary soldiers in the Philippines were rewarded for their this the that soldiers they the Philippines, which often led towards in the of and The the impact on the of Spanish in the Pacific in the seventeenth century, that a in and a of those who to the of empire in the Spanish Pacific. In López de the Pacific from New Spain to in the against the with an than and as a military in as of a in the the of as an in New Spain for soldiers for the Philippines, and as of in de to on the other of the Pacific. in the Philippines, was and in as of an to the was by Dutch and was and for and a on a sailed across the Celebes towards the Philippines, was by Moro and was the was left for the by to López de for the that in pursuit of the In of and to the of in in López de a of the and by the military who the Spanish empire in the seventeenth in the Philippines just one of a much that The of other in the Philippines that of López de were The of the military in the Philippines almost of the empire and in the of the century, in of as and in military or sailed on the famed silver of New all the military in the Philippines, were the most to to the image of the in the as soldiers they the of of and to and this the of ordinary soldiers in the Philippines. across the century the that that Spanish soldiers between hundred and two thousand across all the of the from that this was of the military of the Philippines in that the archipelago needed to a military presence soldiers in to to its The to was a of soldiers to the archipelago on the galleons from New and the of the to the Philippines the seventeenth century that the of soldiers from Acapulco to Manila just 1 of the Philippines that the to hundred soldiers the king on a of the to in the of or hundred soldiers galleons from to de 2 de de 2 soldiers galleons from to de 2 de de 2 that ordinary soldiers outnumbered by to Yet ordinary soldiers are almost much to than the the most they the of and that to an the account of López de military the ordinary soldiers as a the and of soldiers in the Philippines and their to the Spanish empire to in a with the to the military for the Philippines. The of soldiers in the Philippines were from in New were across the of New Spain in the to the of the galleons from Manila in or most in de and could in as and In were to establish a and a that the was in were to to in the Philippines was a and the seventeenth by the across the Pacific and the for from was to a and soldiers soldiers were to have in the of Acapulco to from the they on the galleons for to In the de the of the that they from the of and from the of the were or to the of in two military in the Philippines to much on the of indigenous Filipino soldiers that have with in much in New Spain a of to within the to with a all those who within the the of this do the or to The were to by and who to in the Yet who were to their often to of In de the that was for to the and a to the their all other in New Spain to the of to the Philippines the were the and and of the of New Spain and to as in the military of the Philippines was as the a of all soldiers to the Philippines were account the of in the to that the of soldiers in the Philippines against their was very an this an impact on the of who to the Philippines. the on of the of ordinary soldiers were from the of New than from the of The of New Spain was a of and soldiers and who the of Spanish to the the of the that all the of its and for this was by the the of New Spain as of … and and Spaniards and on to that a of and all of with little of and The was a of in and de they in and and in and the an the of New in of and which of the in New on the of New Spain were to and merchants and between a of were to the of New Spain of a of and to in the Philippines was in a for from was the the the of other the to the that the of were to in the Philippines for and or for the of and as and were were of the of New and they were the of the Philippines against their from loyal to the the of that led to their from New Spain to the Philippines on the galleons that the Pacific In to the of the migrants in New Spain on the Spaniards the on to the New by as soldiers and in Spain and in that this of as as of the migrants to the the seventeenth they in the New soldiers and from their and to the a in a in the or the of the that the of New Historians as and have that the presence of migrants to from the of Spain the of New the presence of Spaniards was by as a to the of Spanish racial of for for the Philippines. were to to the of New Spain for soldiers and as as and other In for was the of the for the to and soldiers in the of was to the soldiers and to the that they could in the for the Philippines and the de within the of New Spain of was an that could only loyal of the In that was to for the Philippines those who are in are in The that to one of the parts of the empire the of was in to Spanish and Soldiers with Spanish were to a in their and their empire by the of the this that soldiers for the to ‘Spaniards and or of those … and those that have Yet, in the of the century, soldiers were often than from within the of New In the in Manila that most of the soldiers who were from New Spain were or with almost Spaniards the They the king for soldiers to from New Spain of the great of in the about their military the in Manila about their to the in the Pacific and their to with indigenous to a which the of New The the was the of the of in New Yet the in the Philippines were with the of soldiers to their of and from the of a of conquistadores the seventeenth century the who on the galleons from New Spain as and The and of soldiers in the that in Manila a the or of their military in this the soldiers who in the Philippines image of the the to which soldiers by their to the empire only by the that soldiers in the of the Pacific. In de the of the Spanish in the Philippines. just soldiers on the galleons from New Spain that the in the of the of New Spain a of the of soldiers who in the that they been and that the that that was a of they left the soldiers to for the as to great and all for … the that has The on to that the soldiers were the of and their of the of and by the and of the of the to that of a the and of the the soldiers across the Philippines were to to from a of The was on the of in the Moluccas, the and led to and of a soldiery with More than soldiers in that with and to the for those in the of empire in the Philippines was the Spanish Pacific were defined by the and of the Pacific which separated the Philippines from the viceroyalty of New Spain (see soldiers in they were across a of Pacific Soldiers were to the archipelago against and to in the of that Yet, in they the of and to the and that Spanish conquered populations. The of soldiers were in Manila and which the century between and seven or between hundred and hundred Spanish soldiers defended the and the galleon trade against from Dutch or Chinese or against the of the Chinese of and were from Manila in of soldiers were across a of in on the of in the and in Mindanao, in the and that the Spanish in for in the of 2 and 3 of soldiers in the of soldiers in the of soldiers in and of soldiers in and of was for its and The of and were for the of the against Moro and for and the for the soldiers in the the of the indigenous of the Visayas, and the of was for of soldiers who to on the islands of and in The on Mindanao, and were as for the of Mindanao, and the and as from which to Spanish control a were by The Spanish of the in and in were to a against the Dutch presence in the in a on Spanish and were eventually for this In the in and the were from which the Spanish could their control indigenous and to Spanish from from a of silver on the galleons of New Soldiers in the Philippines led to and the the to their The Pacific crossing the for material and soldiers, was by the of and a of In the the galleons to in the or to their were of the of their as a of and which within the a soldiers towards and of the of in Spain and New Soldiers in the Philippines The from New Spain a of silver which was to the of all the in the from the to the indigenous and Chinese in the which a were from this of the century that the of silver from New Spain was the and of the led the of Manila a In de wrote that than the to the indigenous soldiers, and military and the were in the of the century, were in the early In that the was for the of the and the on the and just about the soldiers, that they or or a and with this one they of for the 1 to the of soldiers’ the of only of soldiers were and all two of soldiers were one of the that was to The of to soldiers was and from between than a to the of the Moluccas, of soldiers were and one of was to The of to the soldiers was and between a and years, the of that soldiers to to The of silver in the led to in material and In de that in the from New Spain to a to in of and other and that been to were in as the and which were on of from Manila. In that the soldiers in to the most to against the the from Manila was to a the that only to to the the soldiers of the on from Manila. was a for soldiers the In a hundred soldiers were to have from Acapulco to Manila as a of the and by their In the of Manila that the soldiers in the islands were of and were to and their to In the in Manila that a of and in the islands was to in those were to the Manila galleons and from their ordinary of transporting and other from the of the Philippines for the of Manila. In to a by a in the of which the with were this was in of were across Pacific they were in the and most in the Moluccas, kilometres of Manila. for to the in the for of as as a of to written by the of de in that the an for years, that the soldiers were and been The needed to two hundred soldiers in than a than soldiers from Manila. that than two hundred soldiers in with the Dutch and from and that the were that soldiers in from their by and towards and material in the were by the and of and other In the soldiers in the of the were left and by Dutch from a of and the of the Moluccas, an the of the of the of the soldiers of the The to the of their they the within two Despite this, the of the de that to the and and who was to have been In the soldiers of the a to and and the other in the of the of which soldiers were The or of the and in were back to an and they were of were to of the as as of and the and Chinese within the and they were In the of this was the of the who was to and and to have the soldiers to and to the to the in the The of was an of of Spanish in the and the Soldiers in of and that the of and that were across the Pacific. in the were to from and than from with the the within Pacific of the Spanish from of or to of of the in the in were were much The soldiers of the were for making their towards or as as to the Dutch and against their and were to from the that soldiers from and Manila their and were the the indigenous they been for and other of were of In that of the who were to the of ordinary soldiers the to from their and with Spanish Spaniards could to against the empire, as in the of who an indigenous in in and against the Spanish was eventually The of the for to as in in were that the of the Philippines In the of Manila that the soldiers in the from a of In de the soldiers were and to those that in In de to the from the on the that the in the were that only soldiers the the outpost been by and a of to the with in Manila was as a of and by soldiers with the of from the of the Yet, with the this was soldiers in Manila were to in the of and soldiers in the in that the in the islands was and a years, with from one and a to Soldiers in Manila were to in the that a of were on the transporting from Manila to in the soldiers on the to to the of this to the of in the was to this was In a of to as in and their and sailed for the between Manila and the Pacific outpost in the in the In this was the of the Pacific crossing which the soldiers and on the the were settled in the of a between Manila and was the making the was to a of a from Manila in the of the against which the for eventually to back towards the Philippines. by the of and and eventually they against and sailed the back to Manila. The was The of the was by this that very were to their in the the with a of from across the from and as who as a great of the in to king to the and that to and the to and the to with the in the in They an to to Manila and on in their the to The of as the and the and The of the Moluccas, de the of the in an been against for the of the Philippines, de of from Manila to by of to soldiers who or who the of soldiers who was of to the soldiers of this spread the soldiers in and to in for that they to the of to Manila. The de are of the that could the of and to their the of across the Philippines that was to as the of de was of to and the for de was to ‘a that by and by the and as in of the of and was were against the of the de who was to have and back to the soldiers the of their for Soldiers were to by the material that they in the in to of exploitation by their Yet, in to this, soldiers against the of their in the Philippines, as has been was often by and of and were the of the Philippines. to from their In de that the to the Philippines a of was they were to The of the Philippines to and was to this the in that in the Philippines often and to indigenous or Chinese and in the indigenous of their of and the of their their back to New they Manila. The most of and ordinary soldiers in in the the and a of and The most of in a of soldiers, led by a control of the for a of their and military in The of soldiers across the from Manila to and that the in across the Pacific was and as this in the of on of the Pacific about the of the as an was that the the to control the and on to their military and two the of the in a of than were the of the The and to within a of a to all the and in a and for The was could and of the were The of the were in and later to Manila. The of in the and the are about the of military in the Spanish Pacific. often and to of material and from their the Spanish soldiers that their to the was soldiers were essential to the of Spanish in the Philippines, their could the of most the of soldiers’ in the Spanish their in the of Spanish against and More often than that a in with a of the of the and the in Manila a on indigenous impact was most the of the in the of the seventeenth century, soldiers were with Dutch on the Spanish presence in the of soldiers were in as the and the Spanish were in to Dutch on the The Dutch to the in the with and military from Manila. in the Dutch a of Spanish the between the islands of and The Dutch the Spanish towards their and eventually one of the and to all the soldiers to the The Spanish to they were the Dutch a the Spanish the to the the Dutch and other that were as for the soldiers in the and two of the all the Dutch the of the Dutch in the were to to the the most the seventeenth century was the of to the Dutch in In the de of to Spanish interests in the Philippines and the in of and in to for other the of the Dutch the of wrote to Manila and the soldiers as and most of are and The soldiers left the and those who were left were of military by the Dutch been with to the in the to one this, the Dutch the Spanish in and the Spanish from the the Spanish of indigenous and of the empire were to a of military the seventeenth century led to of territorial in the of in the a indigenous in the of Spanish and soldiers for than a of this were back Spanish across Luzon to against Spanish settlements for the of the seventeenth century, with Spanish to in about the territories of and islands were the of the two military that Spain in the Philippines the seventeenth century, were in very Spain to power in and was to in Yet, and almost against all the Spanish to a presence in the Pacific and the of the seventeenth century their control within the of Luzon and parts of the they to the Dutch in the and to the in and and to the of by the of the century Spanish was or settled in the Philippines. the Spanish were to this to the with which to their military The most of was the of indigenous soldiers to and in the Spanish soldiers were in in of for of against the Dutch or of or indigenous the of the century, have for indigenous soldiers in this The on indigenous Filipinos for the and control of other indigenous a by Spanish that their were and the of colonial that has to an between conquered and the historian has the image of the Spanish that of the Spanish of the have the as an who as a of the of peoples. Yet the of the the of the military in and the who in of of the conquistadores of have an impact on of the ordinary soldiers who Spanish territorial across the New in the that as the of the of soldiers have been their as within the of They have very little from of has to that have to of the only of indigenous in the of empire, of those who have been Spanish soldiers in the Pacific were and of from their in Spain and New Spain by the that were and in to the of in the of the Their to empire was much than often of early empire an that and towards the who the of the colonial military from and a on and other the of the the of this military In the Philippines, two thousand soldiers were the of and than a as as the of the empire against from and this the of soldiers and the which they only for of the of in for the of an and the of helps to the in which empire was from within and soldiers in the Pacific were in of and the of they in of their Their was for the most could to they to or the of the soldiers who in the Philippines a of empire and in the century or of the Spanish presence in the the of empire was and Yet that the Spanish presence in the Pacific for two the of this The Manila galleons to the Pacific the of the of in with cargoes of and silver as as soldiers and the century, the Philippines a of for and of those who the Pacific a within Filipino by de has all the Spaniards who Filipino with the of Spanish in the century of Spanish soldiers who their to within indigenous often Spanish empire in the the presented that an on the of indigenous and the of Spain the of and that defined in the Spanish Pacific. The as by and than and was as much by this history of and as was by the of and exploitation which empire