2006/03/01 by Thomas A. Guglielmo · 4 citations
Social Sciences · #Latin American and Latino Studies #Race, History, and American Society #Asian American and Pacific Histories
paper · pdf · doi:10.2307/4485889
openalex publication_date 2006/03/01 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/07/29
In the spring of 1943, the Texas state legislature unanimously passed and Gov. Coke R. Stevenson signed a peculiar civil rights resolution, the “Caucasian Race—Equal Privileges” resolution. It stated that “all nations of the North and South American continents are banded together in an effort to stamp out Nazism and preserve democracy”; that “our neighbors to the South are cooperating and aiding us in every way possible”; and that “the citizens of the great State of Texas are interested in doing all that is humanly possible to aid and assist the national policy of hemispheric solidarity.” For all those reasons, the resolution declared, “all persons of the Caucasian Race within the jurisdiction of this State are entitled to the full and equal accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of all public places of business or amusement.” Since the state of Texas had, at various points, officially accepted people of Latin American descent as white, or Caucasian, the resolution was aimed at them—“our neighbors to the South.”1 This resolution and similar bills that failed to pass the legislature in 1941, 1943, and 1945 were important parts of the Mexican and Mexican American wartime civil rights struggle in Texas. The prominent League of United Latin American Citizens (lulac) leader M. C. Gonzales apparently authored versions of the legislation, and other lulac leaders and councils across Texas lobbied hard for it. So did the Mexican government— its foreign minister, Ezequiel Padilla, its embassy in Washington, and its many consuls throughout the state—and “Mexican” newspapers and civil rights and community organizations on both sides of the border. Those activists worked, sometimes in tandem, sometimes independently, toward a legal remedy for rampant discrimination against Mexicans and Mexican Americans. By examining the battle for this legislation and the legislation itself, we can learn much about a crucial strand of the modern Mexican American civil rights struggle.2 Drawing on State Department records (which offer a wealth of information on activities in Mexico and the United States) as well as other rich archival sources in Texas and Washington, D.C., I argue that this struggle was more transnational than many scholars have recognized. The transnational dimension suggests that some conventional wisdom about the so-called Mexican American generation, the cohort of largely United Statesborn community leaders active from the 1930s through the 1950s—especially the notion that it was always far more concerned with America and Americans than with Mexico and Mexicans—might need tweaking. I also suggest that the struggle's Caucasian calculation—the decision to fight for white rights for some, rather than equal rights for all—reflected not only what the activists deemed a pragmatic political strategy but also a form of self-identification that some Mexicans and Mexican Americans clutched firmly. Such a strategy was not unique to people of Mexican origin. A white southerner resisting the decision in Brown v. Board of Education, an Italian immigrant signing a racially restrictive covenant, an Asian Indian petitioning the government for naturalization as a “free white person,” a light-skinned African American passing as white to secure a better job—all are examples of people fighting for Caucasian rights. Indeed, in a nation where for so long those rights were the only ones worth having, it should come as no surprise that an assortment of people desperately wanted them. But the various political struggles were by no means identical. Some people (for example, the Asian Indian and the African American) struggled to obtain Caucasian rights; others (the white southerner and the Italian American) fought to protect those they already had. The story here about Mexicans and Mexican Americans is about the first kind of struggle, not the second. After all, if the state accepted people of both Mexican and European descent as white, or Caucasian, only those of Mexican descent had to launch a transnational struggle to make that acceptance a daily reality. This essay, then, seeks to clarify precisely where the shifting boundaries of whiteness lay and the critical, concrete differences between being “white on arrival” and being This also to all of and that on in the Mexican Americans not at all or only in in to the in as scholars have long to the of in the United or at and Mexicans and Mexican Americans a from that of African Americans or that of in the of the South and a that and to the wartime of Mexicans and Mexican a of not the more people of Mexican descent in Texas than in other It is in some important from those of Mexicans and Mexican Americans in other parts of the that are the of this this on civil rights to United civil rights struggles in Since much of this on African this seeks to what it to about other of the of the this some of the civil rights if the here is on government than on Mexicans and Mexican Americans. we notion of civil rights to people of Mexican we learn that government the of the they did so in the of the the need for hemispheric and the wartime of the United and Latin in the of Asian and African and struggle with In to the to the in the wartime about in Texas to concrete civil rights Indeed, out to more than in and Mexican fight for Caucasian and other rights. were in to in to state and and Mexican wartime struggle, in the of the South and more Texas. the all and Texas state accepted people of Mexican descent as white or from as or Mexicans were entitled to as white they and Mexican Americans were in sometimes in white on white white white and in white By the the officially as only Mexican American with from Mexican the State and and the to its in and in some Mexican Americans in the state white the other in with the other white and Mexican Americans more and in in and in the and were daily to and in public In and about so-called Mexicans the state that not only and but also and the of all Mexicans and Mexican Americans this the and other all Mexicans and Mexican Americans the full and of discrimination and and more of and that the full and privileges of then, was a white, and But and as a of and the in Mexicans and Mexican Americans had the and of the through aid and and Such in the the more than both of the in Latin America and its need to secure hemispheric against the the fight for Mexican and Mexican American equal rights with and as wartime more and or more Mexico a and in its to secure better for its citizens in the United in in of of Mexican and Mexican American and a in the in than in as This and only and Mexican to the and they wartime and In so it activists with for and to fight in with stated as with African the about the of Mexicans and Mexican were the between American and government as the of the the State and the of the of more to and Mexican and full of this of was a transnational of Mexican American civil rights but also organizations in with as the League of Americans or the of as the American of Latin of or the of newspapers and on both sides of the Mexican government from the foreign minister, Ezequiel Padilla, and the Mexican in to consuls and consuls throughout important civil rights that in Mexico the Mexico for the of Mexicans and against and Mexicans and Mexican Americans to This of people and did not always in or on But they were in the struggle, I they all an to rights for people of Mexican descent in to government in Washington, and Mexico to and in the to pass state legislation to Mexicans and Mexican Americans equal to all public places of business and in Texas. The to the wartime Mexicans and Mexican Americans a of at and in and the and in public the and In the of 1943, the discrimination against Latin about discrimination from the Mexican and of discrimination in public places of business and of the of that Mexicans and Mexican Americans to Stevenson the and the with public 1943, for example, of the United was a by the Texas. I this with other are in the and are the with all and I have in Texas for and on the for that we are in a against the of and but are for the of those at that are us The about public of a and fight by people of for at the of many of the Mexicans and Mexican Americans the to places as and or the struggle, by Mexicans and Mexican had a more and to for example, from citizens and Mexican and and and and from all in from the that and were in the only places that many and Mexicans and Mexican Americans The to a form of by the to activists were more by the wartime of in various and by the they wanted a that not only discrimination against people of Mexican descent in public but also on all The in of the prominent Mexican American civil rights M. C. Gonzales of lulac and of the League of a state from of to a the equal and the equal rights in the on a to the Caucasian resolution, persons of the Caucasian Race within the jurisdiction of the State are entitled to the full and equal accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of all public places of business or amusement.” The also that a Caucasian of discrimination for not than and the was to have no on from the that the to or or public places of business or for the of persons of the Race and persons of the Caucasian Race from all of the in the Texas was by of and a of the to it to the State from both sides of the lobbied hard for the the of of State in a of the and of State and to of the Texas in of lulac councils also The in for example, on to it the of between the United and the Latin American and the American Citizens of Mexican descent are of the Caucasian The Mexican embassy and Mexican newspapers did as In a to the State Department in 1941, the embassy “the of Mexico and public in the United Mexican with the the are being in with the of an The the embassy the State Department to all with the of the State of Texas to the that its legislature not its first the in Mexico also for In of Mexico and the of Texas a for the many citizens in the of the United have Mexico in an 1941, the Texas in the they have so that all from the that to a and this the Texas to a and the a to Stevenson to the Texas legislature a for more at the also from the Texas from the and no from the State The from in state were not by white a not the others no with and out of the the the was that the in a state that was “Mexican” people in Mexico and those of the state had no people and the had only activists a of in the The of as the Texas legislature in 1943, much had Mexico and the United were at fighting as against the and cooperating on foreign and Indeed, it was in this of and that the signed the Mexican and and the United It was also in this that activists to pass a Caucasian of in the Texas and a in the both were to with the about and of the of were in for the Mexican American leaders as M. C. and all and government in to for the with and Gonzales also the State in to to the of discrimination Mexicans and Mexican Americans in Texas and the need for the of the as of the on in Texas by the a in by from and and all of lobbied for the Mexican embassy in government leaders to and to make the Mexican for But the of the Mexican to the not from the but from the by the the passed The of the to a to the of “Caucasian and it to out of the State of the legislature did offer an the “Caucasian Race—Equal Privileges” resolution, passed the on and the on and was signed by Stevenson the of and the resolution declared, as that “all persons of the Caucasian are to equal in “all public places of business and and that to those equal as the policy of The to it the was far from many activists that a resolution as to a by the not a of state they also a of state the to those many activists at in by the resolution. In a to Stevenson signed the was to pass a resolution that they of discrimination in or to that This means that we did not the we wanted and nation in to the of the to I much Mexican Americans similar In to the in Texas in Latin is to that all or state legislature have the American Latin is to pass and legislature had passed a to make it an to against it have more and much The Mexican government its with to the embassy in Mexico It also to and at the discrimination against Mexicans and Mexican Americans in Texas and by what it deemed to about the Mexican government its In it all consuls in Texas that the state not to the signed a the for the to a from the to that this had not make possible the of Mexican the to Texas. that they had of in Texas. to a in the Texas have or in and that the of the to pass the a here the had with a resolution was In a to a State Department in this the of the the Mexican government an with the State of Texas is much concerned in to to about I that if is to with to discrimination it the from Mexico are so great and so was a in need of Texas on the of leaders in Washington, state in State Department on both sides of the and in Mexico in an to the to and with from the State Department and the with a in and through the American embassy in Mexico with Coke Stevenson in the of the to the policy of Texas as in and all to by this policy and resolution the in both and a to all of the of the State of Texas to in to against on with Padilla, in Stevenson not only the need for but also to the foreign that effort is being to out discrimination as against in on a was with and discrimination against Latin Americans in and in on a of Mexico to in the on as a of the This of Mexico to its in and in spring For and of Mexico apparently that the was in it was every in Mexico the an American embassy to is to of with to a with the had to a it far to the both with the United and the of discrimination that to make the in in 1943, out the of Texas was to a of of and to the United the and and the Mexican government had not what it wanted legislation with This was only in the of in Texas a as activists had all the Caucasian resolution was stated the if the of this State had to the as it always in this State and a should to places of that it have so by the and of a to that and not have passed only a M. C. Gonzales to the state in to the with the The decision was a surprise a the Gonzales and were in the and Gonzales in in the is a if we we are and if we we are a have the activists the they were the the need to much more to protect and Mexican civil rights. the of the Texas legislature than a activists on with and than The Mexican government its as as the bills failed and The effort at the on at the of Texas in In were the Mexican to the United all Mexican consuls in of the State the in of Texas state and all of the Mexican consuls from across the state all and the need for the Texas legislature to pass a civil rights in its in a that the “the of Texas at an the of an for those its Mexican consuls to hard for as they of from Mexican American also lobbied for legislation long the Texas legislature in leaders as but others as for example, the of of Latin are in the of in all the of in to the Texas the of a that protect from and not only the of Latin but those at the in and all Latin people are being to discrimination in public places on A lulac also from a in a organizations the of American the Mexican of the of and they a resolution that in to to in to the Texas on a for the of a to protect from and the people of Mexican they citizens of Mexico or to legislation also accepted the or that discrimination was the of the was the Mexican they as in Texas state in to Stevenson and the to that But also from more people and some of were to if not to the for example, always that can by a of and than by and the and State Department Indeed, the were with from and others on the and in the of and the need for and in is that a of discrimination should the of The was by Stevenson with and from both the State Department and the to those as By the of it had its make the a more by the Texas state government (the had and The was in the Texas legislature as a to what the In this of in the Texas on A on the the stated no public of business or to of or Mexican or equal facilities, or The also that of the of a and more than or for a of not more than or in to the or persons against for the the of In the the did the all But in 1945 an by passed to protect “all persons of Mexican or Latin American or of the Caucasian or Indian from Mexico was and the and the of the in and that the In a the also the as “the first to the that Mexicans and Latin Americans in this C. in of the to to fight for the The Mexican more on the of the Texas Gov. a in from the Mexican of the of the in the legislature to pass the a on of the Mexican R. in that and of were all at the in and to the across the This a to of in Mexico and between Mexico and some were than the story first in a to the of that this for of in an effort to aid the of the was about is hard to but activists as great of the for had in its a to Stevenson on against the by the of a in Texas. that this and of discrimination against a Mexican the of the of Texas to the of passing a on of the of and the League of the discrimination at should every and American with on the legislature to pass the other Mexican Americans to hard to pass and Gonzales all the on State in for the of legislation as the were prominent people the to the of the in to and a that a in the of and I have also to that the and for all of the the and that here and are on us citizens of with this and I are all citizens of this and to by the that the discrimination we from is the rights to the advantages, to to a of or a with well we equal the and of the and State of Texas. also a of to the Mexican in to In a the story that the the of no to the and it in if to an the the in if it on the at all, about its of the on largely an It to the and of people are in need of being It by passing a the by to that they with The passed the in but with an that the all but It stated that the not to or to citizens or of not have a or to citizens of Texas and of the United the privileges and rights in as are in this the was to the that it was to The in the the on its the to on the transnational for the it only that some of the to the from Mexicans in In at a to the of American the legislature of the State of Texas had to a have a to discrimination against Mexicans in the to at all the of Texas in on to other to the bills the Texas legislature the but every and as to as had in this story is of an with activists the the Caucasian resolution, the and the at the and have those as a of on with the of the Caucasian resolution, was passed a the was that some Stevenson not have so if the Mexican government had not the the of the struggle The Mexican government its Mexicans were by the discrimination in Texas. of discrimination no from many but the important were the in with Mexican American and every of discrimination they Stevenson not have the the Mexican government not have the a transnational struggle that it to This transnational is Indeed, the Mexican American civil rights a more if at the the Mexican and Mexican American civil rights only by examining and on both sides of the border. The struggle not only Mexican and American and civil rights but also on and to its the need for hemispheric the for from and the need of the United in its fight with to its in This transnational and this story more some conventional wisdom about the Mexican American and scholars have both as more on America and American citizens than Mexico and Mexican It is that the of activists as and of an to to secure civil rights in the United by state and government But to they and great of with of with the United to “the of as Mexican American activists on and they had, many of were with Mexican civil rights Mexican and Mexican consuls and other government a of was a for and the Mexican American generation, they I by with not battle for Caucasian rights legislation to protect all people of Mexican or Latin American not those were citizens of the United only did did and of the legislation was that it protect to the of it was were Caucasian to the this as to have from an as to By that public should people on the of or they that should have to with it. and the foreign and the rights and the 1945 of the Caucasian rights was about the of and activists and to discrimination in public accommodations, many no to whiteness at the and others many activists to daily in and and In some as they fought for a Caucasian rights of and more In legal restrictive and the Mexican American leaders and Gonzales were in with the for the of Gonzales that if they a that we can lay a for the on in of In a to the for Mexican Americans but for not doing more for African better of people in better of by are of or in Mexico an of and out against all of discrimination and on its of many of the Mexican and Mexican American activists a if to fight for Caucasian in rights for some, not equal rights for the all, by the Texas state and the of in a state as and as wartime that was no In the and from and to the of legal to the legal R. not of discrimination against persons of or of for of a similar the also citizens of Latin American a and Those were of to and the Stevenson with and some to Mexican and Mexican American and the of African Americans or to them. for the is it was Such to African American rights no many Mexican and Mexican American activists to what from what not of from white, of from white, But more than have at was some and Mexican with whiteness and to or at from have the of to Mexico and on Mexican lulac throughout the Indeed, those scholars have far as I can for they are the of whiteness in the The for Caucasian rights that with whiteness and from Mexican American in the lulac and Mexican but also some is the of from Mexican Americans to Texas and government in of and In to the white but we are than is against a not for the to a but for the against and for was to the to the that and are of the was the from of is the for against on from the rather than the “Mexican” to it. an the as white as or other white are the from lulac and Mexican consuls against Mexicans and Mexicans Americans with and from in on and in and are the by Mexican Americans in of In the Texas of 1943, with an of the for and for Americans not the of the or so by the of we at the that Latin Americans are Caucasian or Since this is it not that the to and Mexicans as a means of is rather are the and of from the that Mexicans the of the in a way as to to of European or The Mexicans are of as they and are not of Indian against that from the it that the for Caucasian rights was more than political it was also an and of some Mexicans and Mexican in and at to In the the fight for Caucasian rights is a the is a and a and transnational struggle that many of its but to out of a Texas state government that much about its the other the struggle was in and a and of and The in wartime Texas had a to with rights and on those whiteness and those deemed or people on the between white and to for the and from the that it Texas Mexicans to fight for Caucasian rights rather than equal rights. was the no in were to at Indeed, in the in as and where for the had far and than in Texas was with the wartime of Mexican Americans to have more to with African Americans and other of in as the of its the of lulac and the American political and Caucasian In it is important to in wartime Texas with its some Mexicans and Mexican Americans the Caucasian rights The and have that in Mexican American of the of and with African American and to fight for and not only a and a but also a from that no discrimination against of or national in the all people of Mexican descent to struggle with African Americans against the of a for the of more Mexicans and Mexican Americans in wartime Texas did not at a the was us that for all the rights and and that whiteness is the of the C. Gonzales is in a from lulac by the League of United Latin American Gonzales was sometimes with a fight for Mexican American rights in Texas. League of United Latin American Latin American of A the that Mexican Americans were to the privileges of in the a leader in the League of United Latin American the on in for of a Mexicans and Mexican Americans the privileges of the “Caucasian Latin American of the on to on both sides of the border. the Texas the Mexicans on the Mexican on first in the Mexico in of The of by the against on a a a from the that in what they but they are equal in to is no by at