The Evolution of Cooperation

1981/03/27 by Robert Axelrod, W D Hamilton · 239 citations
Psychology · Social Sciences · #Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation #Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior #Primate Behavior and Ecology

paper · doi:10.1126/science.7466396

openalex publication_date 1981/03/27 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/04

Abstract

Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease.

Citations

• Effective Choice in the Prisoner's Dilemma
• Altruism and Related Phenomena, Mainly in Social Insects
• The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I
• Free Competition and the Optimal Amount of Fraud
• The Market for "Lemons": Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism
• The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism

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