2024/06/15 by Shahar Dubiner, Reut Vardi, Shai Meiri +1 · 1 voice · 1 citation
Agricultural and Biological Sciences · Environmental Science · Psychology · #Amphibian and Reptile Biology #Animal and Plant Science Education #Bat Biology and Ecology Studies
paper · pdf · doi:10.1002/ecy.4370
openalex publication_date 2024/06/15 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/07/27
Life under the shadow of war is full of anguish. While we mostly focus, rightfully and understandably, on the toll on human lives, armed conflicts also have far-reaching effects on biodiversity conservation (Conteh et al., 2017; Sousa et al., 2022). Wildlife populations can suffer from direct hits, habitat destruction, and exploitation by displaced people—all of which is exacerbated by declines in environmental funding and enforcement (reviewed in Gaynor et al., 2016; Hanson, 2018). Military activity is also full of sudden, unnaturally loud noises, potential stressors for wild animals (Shannon et al., 2016). Both domestic (Bowen, 2008) and wild animals (reviewed in Krausman et al., 1998) alter their behaviors in response to aircraft noise, gunshots, and fireworks. Physiological responses to noise, however, are less commonly studied; mammal heart rates have been shown to increase in response to military jet flyovers (Geist et al., 1985; MacArthur et al., 1979; Weisenberger et al., 1996), but few studies have been conducted on this phenomenon. In reptiles, even outside the context of war, fear and distress are difficult to gauge (Lambert et al., 2019), and research on their reaction to anthropogenic noise is minimal (Shannon et al., 2016). However, the lizard Aspidoscelis neotesselatus has shown stress responses in reaction to military jet flyovers, including higher blood ketone and corticosterone levels, and more time spent foraging afterward as compensation for lost energy (Kepas et al., 2023). Dubiner et al. (2023) recently reported evidence of a sharp increase in the respiration of a single individual blind snake Xerotyphlops syriacus during a 2021 rocket attack on Tel Aviv. Sadly, while conducting a long-term experiment on the physiology of geckos, the eruption of the war between Israel and Hamas allowed us to empirically test and quantify the real-time effects of repeated bombings on reptile metabolism. During the first month of the tragic Israel–Hamas war (ongoing since October 7, 2023), Hamas fired ~10,000 rockets into Israeli civilian areas, some of which (in 25 separate barrages) exploded or were intercepted not far from our university. On September 18, 2023, we had begun a long-term experiment on the physiology of the elegant short-fingered gecko (Gekkonidae: Stenodactylus sthenodactylus; Figure 1a). We caught seven geckos in Netanya (32.278° N, 34.835° E) under Permit 43032 from the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. The geckos were kept at Tel Aviv University in terraria with water ad libitum and fed with mealworms 6 and 3 days before each measurement. The metabolism of all individuals was recorded weekly (every Tuesday) at 28°C in cycles of 30 min every 4 h per individual, from noon to midnight. The metabolic chamber volume was 50 mL, through which dry air flowed at 50 mL/min into an LI-7000 CO2/H2O analyzer (LICOR, Lincoln, NE, USA). An empty identical chamber was automatically recorded between measurements as a reference. Geckos were fed and rehydrated when the experiment ended. We released the geckos to their original home range on November 7, 2023. Measurements were conducted under ethics permit number 23071423 from the TAU Ethics Committee. Five barrages that struck or were intercepted near our university coincided with respirometric measurements involving five of the seven geckos. We compared the metabolic rates recorded in response to the explosions to the same individuals' metabolic rate before and after the barrages using Expedata 1.9.20. Exact bombing times were retrieved from the National Emergency Portal (http://www.oref.org.il/12481-he/Pakar.aspx). Metabolic rates (log-transformed) were calculated from VCO2, assuming a respiratory quotient of 0.8. Gecko metabolic rates were, on average, 2.3 ± 0.3 times higher immediately after the explosions (averaged from the explosion to the end of the 30-min measurement) compared to 4 h prior (Tukey honestly significant difference [HSD]: n = 5; t = −8.3; padj = 0.004; Figure 1b). However, the metabolic rates during the 30 min immediately after the explosions were 1.6 times higher than 4 h after them. This difference was not statistically significant (Tukey HSD: n = 5; t = −3.7; padj = 0.062; Figure 1b; see Appendix S1: Table S1 for details). The strength of the response over time did not attenuate over the 4 weeks (ordinary least squares for change against date: slope = −0.03; R2 = 0.09; p = 0.52). We assume the increased metabolic costs indicate an acute stress response, initiated by the loud noise or vibrations from the explosions (Dubiner et al., 2023) and continuing, to a lesser degree, several hours after. Despite ranging from the Day 4 to Day 32 of the war, the geckos' response did not attenuate. In their terraria, geckos were exposed to all 25 barrages, not only the five occurring when their metabolic rates were measured. Some (but not all) mammals may habituate to military noise after prolonged exposure (Krausman et al., 1998), but our data suggest that for geckos the detrimental effects may last for as long as hostilities do. It is also worth noting that we recorded the responses inside a sheltered, windowless room with concrete walls. In the wild, animals are much more exposed and may be affected by explosions more strongly and across a larger area. A metabolic response of the magnitude we recorded could gradually deplete energy stores reserved for growth and reproduction, thereby decreasing fitness (Steyermark, 2002). It could also increase foraging times to compensate for the heightened demands of stress (Kepas et al., 2023), which can negatively impact lizard fitness and population stability (Sinervo et al., 2010). This would reduce the time allocated to other fitness-increasing activities, exposing animals to more hours at risk (e.g., predation), precisely when risks from military sources are already high (Gaynor et al., 2016; Hanson, 2018; Sousa et al., 2022). While the conservation consequences are probably minor for Least Concern populations and species such as S. sthenodactylus (Baha El Din et al., 2021), they may be quite high for rare or endemic species, many of which are distributed completely within the range of current or potential armed conflict (Hanson, 2018; Hanson et al., 2009). Some of these, which have limited distributions in areas heavily used by the army (e.g., Acanthodactylus beershebensis, Mediodactylus amictopholis; Bar et al., 2021), might actually face a risk to their populations from “everyday” military training and presence, rather than open war. Therefore, we call for armed forces to consider conservation issues when training, even if these are not prioritized when fighting. Finally, we greatly mourn the pain and loss caused to people in armed conflicts here and everywhere and hope that our results serve as a reminder that war can have devastating effects that extend far beyond what is easily noticed. Shahar Dubiner is funded by the Azrieli Graduate Studies Fellowship. We thank Adi Baram, Avigail Mitrani, Jonathan Ben-Simon, and Simon Jamison for their help in gecko collection and husbandry. We also wish to extend our thoughts to the people in Israel, Gaza, and Lebanon, who are still suffering in this tragic war. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Appendix S1. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.