2026/01/16 by Evaleila Pesaran
Economics, Econometrics and Finance · Social Sciences · #Economic Sanctions and International Relations #Islamic Studies and History #Security, Politics, and Digital Transformation
paper · pdf · doi:10.1017/irn.2025.10135
crossref issued 2026/01/16 · crossref published 2026/01/16 · crossref published-online 2026/01/16 · openalex publication_date 2026/01/16 · crossref created 2026/01/16 · openalex created_date 2026/01/17 · crossref published-print 2026/04/01 · crossref deposited 2026/06/25 · openalex updated_date 2026/07/09 · crossref indexed 2026/07/30
Abstract Iran is one of the most stigmatised countries of the twenty-first century: having been sanctioned by the US since 1979, the Islamic Republic was declared part of the ‘axis of evil’ by President George W. Bush in 2002, and from 2006 onwards, it has been subject to multilateral, comprehensive and wide-reaching economic sanctions. In June 2025, this discursive and economic attack on Iran transitioned to direct military bombardment. For the United States and its allies, Iran is a pariah state. This stigmatisation of Iran is an example of the kinds of practices that contribute to the social construction of the international order, whereby some countries are designated as ‘inside’ and others as ‘outside’ the community of established states. Needless to say, Iran has been placed firmly in the ‘outside’ category ever since 1979. At the same time as accepting and even at times embracing this ‘outsider’ status, however, Iran has also sought to raise its own international standing and to be accepted as an ‘insider’.