A Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character
1993/12/01 by C. Robert Cloninger · 5,496 citations
Psychology · #Big Five personality traits #Big Five personality traits and culture #Character (mathematics) #Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development #Cognitive psychology #Cooperativeness #Developmental psychology #Harm avoidance #Novelty #Novelty seeking #Persistence (discontinuity) #Personality #Personality Disorders and Psychopathology #Personality Traits and Psychology #Psychology #Reward dependence #Self-transcendence #Social psychology #Temperament #Temperament and Character Inventory
paper · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
published in Archives of General Psychiatry 50(12), 975 (American Medical Association)
openalex publication_date 1993/12/01 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/08/05
Abstract
In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment.
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