2007/11/30 by William A. Smith, Walter R. Allen, Lynette L. Danley · 875 citations
Psychology · Social Sciences · #Anger #Anxiety #Black male #COVID-19 and Mental Health #Clinical psychology #Communication in Education and Healthcare #Focus group #Gender studies #Learned helplessness #Political science #Politics #Psychiatry #Psychology #Racial and Ethnic Identity Research #Resentment #Social psychology #Sociology
paper · doi:10.1177/0002764207307742
published in American Behavioral Scientist 51(4), 551-578 (SAGE Publishing)
openalex publication_date 2007/11/30 · openalex created_date 2025/10/10 · openalex updated_date 2026/07/31
The present study examines the experiences of 36 Black male students, in focus group interviews, enrolled at Harvard University; Michigan State University; University of California, Berkeley; University of Illinois; and the University of Michigan. Two themes emerged: (a) anti-Black male stereotyping and marginality (or Black misandry), which caused (b) extreme hypersurveillance and control. Respondents experienced racial microaggressions in three domains: (a) campus—academic, (b) campus—social, and (c) campus—public spaces. Black males are stereotyped and placed under increased surveillance by community and local policing tactics on and off campus. Across these domains, Black males were defined as being “out of place” and “fitting the description” of illegitimate nonmembers of the campus community. Students reported psychological stress responses symptomatic of racial battle fatigue (e.g., frustration, shock, anger, disappointment, resentment, anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness, and fear). There was unanimous agreement in the subjective reports that the college environment was more hostile toward African American males than other groups.